Table 1 Significance and challenges of different animal models

Ischemia and reperfusion injury of the spinal cord

Animal models are warranted

But, need several models are required (Pig, rabbit, mouse)

[9]

Cartilage defect repair with biomaterials

There are murine, ovine, leporine, caprine, porcine, canine, and equine models

In regards to cartilage thickness, joint biomechanics and ethical and licensing matters, caprine models are the best suited

[10]

Monoclonal antibodies for cancer treatment

Preclinical trials of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) in animal models are required to reach the clinic

But, mAbs are less adapted to animal studies

[11]

Animal models to study of limb restoration

Cockroach: similar resemblance within the animal kingdom, cheap, least ethical regulations

Not ideal for the less resemblance with human

[12]

Zebrafish: genome is well identified, vertebrate; grow very fast, high regenerative capacity, least ethical regulations

Not ideal for the less resemblance with human

[13, 14]

Mouse: cheap, fast growth, well established genome, many species and transgenic strains, mammalian

Findings not trustworthy for human trials

[15,16,17]

Rat: larger than mice, cheap, fast growth, well established genome, many species and transgenic strains, mammalian

Findings not trustworthy for human trials as well as maintenance cost is more than mice

[18,19,20,21]

Dog: large in size, higher physical activity, cheaper than horse, mammalian, good for preclinical trial, results are trustworthy for human trials

More ethical constraints, more maturity period than rodents, expensive rearing cost

[22,23,24,25,26]

Horse: larger mammal than dog, higher physical activity, trial result can easily be transferred to human

More ethical constraints, more maturity period, expensive rearing cost

[27,28,29,30]

Development of antibacterials

Efficacy and toxicity of antibacterials can be studied

But, animal model can’t predict human response to that component

[31]

Streptozotocin (STZ)—induced diabetes model

STZ produces clinical features in animals that resemble diabetes in humans

But, physiochemical properties and toxicities of STZ cause mortality to the animals

[32]